“A research technique for making replicable and valid inferences from texts (or other meaningful matter) to the context of their use (Knippendorf p.181, 2004). This is the broad definition that Lune and Berg use to define content analysis when used as a research technique. They imply that when you are involved in any act of collecting qualitative data that material can be analyzed as a research method to obtain information from the artifacts you collect. An example would be my study is proving to be difficult in discourse due to the spiritually personal topic of meditation. Function is a critical feature of scientific research, measured by the standard of generalizability and validity. The purpose of a research project starts with defining matter for scientific studies to gain credibility. Data analysis allows for information collected during a study to be presented and translated into functioning scientific fact that has relevance and utility. Theory of structural functionalism supports this chapter by the dependency content analysis as a function has on all previous chapters to be useful and successful in its purpose. A content analysis works toward presenting th findings and information resulting from working the procedures involved when research is qualitative in social sciences. All the data retrieved needs to be interpreted . Coding assists the process of searching for patterns and counting thematic occurrence when needing to analyze data for qualitative research. Lune and Berg (2017) explain how it can be done using three different techniques which are. interpretive approaches, social anthropological approaches, and collaborative social research approaches.
The first approach depends on which theoretical frame the researcher decides to base his study on. Interpreting the transcribed interviews and observational data by seeking out the meaning and symbols within the text. If the study is exploring or explaining phenomena this approach will analyze content in search of findings used to uncover new information. Interpretive approach of data is common for most general studies framed by an interpretive theory using the coding to uncover consistencies and themes about human behavior and discourse analysis. Using interview transcripts or other sources of data to find relative communication supporting the researchers claim that will reduce the content for easier organization. The second technique is common practice for research methods that are primarily based in field work and case studies. Using their access and time spent within a study population the researcher uses experience and understanding of artifacts as the primary contributing source. Field notes and transcribed interviews are sources the common to analyzing rich data collected using anthropological approach. When determining the information presented diaries, interviews, photographs, and other sources of content need to be organized, refined, and ordered to have a sense of what is not necessary. Social anthropological approach investigates the lifeworld of participants looking closely at relationships and everyday life. Collaborative Social Research is designed to find a resolution for stakeholders. The participants who are included in the research process and content analysis assist in finding a resolution for a shared social issue. When compared to the analysis of the interpreted and anthropological format they are similar in technique. The unique role extended to participants cooperation with a community and researcher does require cohesion when presenting the interpretation of the analysis making it more challenging if findings are not agreed upon by researchers and stakeholders.
Content analysis is conducted based on the level of inductive reasoning in use. The different approaches to conduct in a qualitative study are conventional, directed, and summative analysis. A realistic approach does not exercise use of the three exclusively. Analysis using the first approach will categorize according to raw data to generate theories which are known as grounded. Directed content is analytical and uses previously formed theory and these will guide the research when forming categories. Summative content analysis begins with words used in the actual material and counts the usage to find themes they can attach a latent meaning to interpret. An opposite style would be narrative analysis where the investigator begins with a set of principles focused on context and counting including technique with additional content analysis distinctions that include manifest and latent content both can be applied in analyzing data and cohesion with what separates them is manifest contents are tangible and can be counted while latent content finds understanding and underlying meanings that are not in the real text
Discourse is a study of language and how it is used in conversations Involving words used and the meanings behind them. Content analysis of discourse counts patterns in conversations and includes the social and cultural influences behind them. discourse analysis will be important for research with any kind of conversational feature like an interview helping to pursue the meaning behind the answers given during interviews and field work. As with any data collected it is not necessarily theory until after the information has been coded. Open coding in research will look for meanings that manifest in the text materials under analysis. Lune and Berg (2007) cite four guidelines to follow when conducting open coding in this order 1. ask the data a specific consistent of questions: when analyzing data, it is important to be mindful about what the research question originally stated and what the research question started out as, if data is not relevant there may be other potential studies to be considered 2. Analyze data minutely: include a broad range of categories and elements during the stage of coding understanding that a refining step will reduce the data to supported more concise conclusions systematic coding will be necessary once the documents have been organized by patterns and repetition begins during open coding. 3. frequently interrupt the coding and write a theoretical note: when submerged in the data ideas are flowing with theoretical implications which must be recorded and easily located to make correct use 4. Never assume the analytic relevance of any traditional variable. For this guideline it is effective to use certain variables that are obvious to your study topic. If the first guideline is maintained while analyzing by asking what the data is pertinent to, you will avoid using encoding variables that are not analytically relevant. Coding data can be done in any series of ways in terms of what was listed in the text there are three types to choose from. Descriptive coding has a purpose intended for storing information, the second option is organization of data by topic, and analytic coding is the third type of coding is useful when developing concepts. As I think about what my research question is pertinent to, I see all three styles of coding useful as I can topically find patterns, will need to store data for reference at the same time I'll be attempting to develop concepts about participants experience and consider if meditation is effective for western society. At the near end of my data collection process one thing that stands out in my own content analysis is the good news I can begin coding even when I have not completed the data collection.
Howard Lune, Bruce L. Berg (2017) Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences 9th Edition (QRMSS), Pearson
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